Consumer perception versus scientific evidence of farmed and wild fish: insights from Malaysia
Abstract
Understanding consumer perceptions is crucial for shaping market demand, building consumer confidence, and promoting sustainable practices in the aquaculture sector. The main goal of this study is to examine consumers' perceptions of farmed and wild fish on various attributes, aiming to identify any discrepancies between consumer perception and scientific facts. Using random purposive sampling, a survey was conducted with 250 consumers in selected Malaysian populations recruited via street-intercept interviews. The findings reveal that the debate between consuming farmed fish and wild fish lacks a clear answer, with consumer perceptions, especially regarding freshness and sensory characteristics, often differing from scientific evidence. While fish farming offers advantages in quality control and post-mortem biochemistry, the nutritional composition of fish can vary based on farming conditions. To ensure the success of the aquaculture industry in Malaysia, there is a need to enhance practices, raise awareness among aquaculturists, and educate consumers about the benefits of well-managed aquaculture. By adopting a multidisciplinary approach and addressing the crucial nexus between consumer perceptions and sustainable aquaculture, this study makes a valuable and timely contribution to the ongoing discourse in the aquaculture sector. It offers insights that can inform strategies for promoting responsible seafood consumption and advancing the sustainability agenda in Malaysia's aquaculture industry.
References
Abd Aziz, N., Azlan, A., Ismail, A., Alinafiah, S.M. and Razman, M.R. (2013) Quantitative determination of fatty acids in marine fish and shellfish from warm water of straits of Malacca for nutraceutical purposes. BioMed Research International. Article 284329.
Ackman, R. G., & Hingley, H. J. (1968). The occurrence and retention of dimethyl-β-propiothetin in some filter-feeding organisms. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada, 25(2), 267-284.
Ackman, R. G., Dale, J., & Hingley, J. (1966). Deposition of dimethyl-β-propiothetin in Atlantic cod during feeding experiments. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada, 23(4), 487-497.
Ackman, R. G., Hingley, J., & MacKay, K. T. (1972). Dimethyl sulfide as an odor component in Nova Scotia fall mackerel. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada, 29(7), 1085-1088.
Agusa, T., Kunito, T., Sudaryanto, A., Monirith, I., Kan-Atireklap, S., Iwata, H., Ismail, A., Sanguansin, J., Muchtar, M., Tana, T.S., Tanabe, S. (2007). Exposure assessment for trace elements from consumption of marine fish in Southeast Asia. Environmental Pollution Volume 145, Issue 3, February 2007, Pages 766–777.
Ahmad, N. I., Noh, M. F. M., Mahiyuddin, W. R. W., Jaafar, H., Ishak, I., Azmi, W. N. F. W., ... & Hairi, M. H. (2015). Mercury levels of marine fish commonly consumed in Peninsular Malaysia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(5), 3672-3686.
Alasalvar, C., Taylor, K. D. A., Zubcov, E., Shahidi, F., & Alexis, M. (2002). Differentiation of cultured and wild sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax): total lipid content, fatty acid and trace mineral composition. Food chemistry, 79(2), 145-150.
Alavanja, M. C., Hoppin, J. A., & Kamel, F. (2004). Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity. Annu. Rev. Public Health, 25, 155-197.
Alina, M., Azrina, A., Mohd Yunus, A. S., Mohd Zakiuddin, S., Mohd Izuan Effendi, H., & Muhammad Rizal, R. (2012). Heavy metals (mercury, arsenic, cadmium, plumbum) in selected marine fish and shellfish along the Straits of Malacca. International Food Research Journal, 19(1).
Álvarez, V., Trigo, M., Lois, S., Fernández, D., Medina, I., & Aubourg, S. P. (2009). Comparative Lipid Composition Study in Farmed and Wild Blackspot Seabream (Pagellus bogaraveo). CZECH JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCES, 27, S274-S276.
Andersen, U. B., Thomassen, M. S., & Rørå, A. M. B. (1997). Texture properties of farmed rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): effects of diet, muscle fat content and time of storage on ice. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 74(3), 347-353.
Andrews, J. (2013, September 11). Formaldehyde Detected in Supermarket Fish Imported from Asia. Food Safety News. Retrieved from: http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2013/09/formaldehydedetected-in-supermarket-fish-imported-from-asia/#.WdhCG_OGPIU
Anon. (2015, October 1) Impose curbs on sale of formalin. Daily Express. Retrieved from: http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news.cfm?NewsID=103520
Arechavala-Lopez, P., Fernandez-Jover, D., Black, K. D., Ladoukakis, E., Bayle-Sempere, J. T., SanchezJerez, P., & Dempster, T. (2013). Differentiating the wild or farmed origin of Mediterranean fish: a review of tools for sea bream and sea bass. Reviews in Aquaculture, 5(3), 137-157.
Aursand, M. and Axelson, D. (2001) Origin recognition of wild and farmed salmon (Norway and Scotland) using 13C NMR spectroscopy in combination with pattern recognition techniques. In: Magnetic Resonance in Food Science: A View to the Future. Webb, G.A., Belton, P.S., Gil, A.M. and Delgadillo, I. (Eds.). Published by RSC-The Royal Society of Chemistry, pp. 227-231.
Aursand, M., Bleivik, B., Rainuzzo, J.R., Jørgensen, L. and Mohr, V. (1994) Lipid distribution and composition of commercially farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). J. Sci. Food Agric., 64: 239-248.
Aursand, M., Mabon, F. and Martin, G.J. (2000) Characterization of farmed and wild salmon (Salmo salar) by a combined use of compositional and isotopic analyses. JAOCS., 77: 659-666.
Azlan, A., Nasir, N. N. M., Shamsudin, N., Rahman, H. A., Khoo, H. E., & Razman, M. R. (2015). PCDD and PCDF exposures among fishing community through intake of fish and shellfish from the Straits of Malacca. BMC public health, 15(1), 683.
Bell, J.G., McEvoy, J., Tocher, D.R., McGhee, F., Campbell, P.J. and Sargent, J.R. (2001). Replacement of Fish Oil with Rapeseed Oil in Diets of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Affects Tissue Lipid Compositions and Hepatocyte Fatty Acid Metabolism. The Journal of Nutrition, 131(5), pp. 1535-1543.
Bhouri, A. M., Bouhlel, I., Chouba, L., Hammami, M., El Cafsi, M., & Chaouch, A. (2010). Total lipid content, fatty acid and mineral compositions of muscles and liver in wild and farmed sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax). African Journal of Food Science, 4(8), 522-530.
Bjørnevik, M., Karlsen, Ø., Johnston, I. A., & Kiessling, A. (2003). Effect of sustained exercise on white muscle structure and flesh quality in farmed cod (Gadus morhua L.). Aquaculture Research, 34(1), 55- 64.
Borderías, A. J., and Sánchez-Alonso, I. (2011). First Processing Steps and the Quality of Wild and Farmed Fish. Journal of Food Science, 76(1), R1–R5. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750- 3841.2010.01900.x
Cahu, C., Salen, P., and de Lorgeril, M. (2004). Farmed and wild fish in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases: Assessing possible differences in lipid nutritional values. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, 14(1), 34–41. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0939- 4753(04)80045-0
Can, M. F., Günlü, A., & Can, H. Y. (2015). Fish consumption preferences and factors influencing it. Food Science and Technology, 35, 339-346.
Carlucci, D., Nocella, G., De Devitiis, B., Viscecchia, R., Bimbo, F., & Nardone, G. (2015). Consumer purchasing behaviour towards fish and seafood products. Patterns and insights from a sample of international studies. Appetite, 84, 212-227.
Chan, N. W. (2012). Managing urban rivers and water quality in Malaysia for sustainable water resources. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 28(2), 343-354.
Chandralekha, A.P.L., Baranage, C. and Samarajeewa, U. (1992) Formaldehyde levels in fish from the Kandy market. Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka, 20, 115–121.
Claret, A., Guerrero, L., Ginés, R., Grau, A., Hernández, M. D., Aguirre, E., … Rodríguez-Rodríguez, C. (2014). Consumer beliefs regarding farmed versus wild fish. Appetite, 79, 25–31. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2014.03.031
Craig, S. R., Helfrich, L. A., Kuhn, D., & Schwarz, M. H. (2017). Understanding fish nutrition, feeds, and feeding. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Publication 420-256
Cretì, P., Trinchella, F., & Scudiero, R. (2010). Heavy metal bioaccumulation and metallothionein content in tissues of the sea bream Sparus aurata from three different fish farming systems. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 165(1-4), 321-329.
Davidson, K., Pan, M., Hu, W., & Poerwanto, D. (2012). CONSUMERS'WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR AQUACULTURE FISH PRODUCTS VS. WILD-CAUGHT SEAFOOD–A CASE STUDY IN HAWAII. Aquaculture Economics & Management, 16(2), 136-154.
Dionigi, C. P., Johnsen, P. B., & Vinyard, B. T. (2000). The recovery of flavor quality by channel catfish. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 62(3), 189-194.
DoFM (2000 – 2014). National annual fisheries statistics were obtained from official spreadsheets and reports uploaded by the Department of Fisheries, Malaysia on its open data portal:http://www.dof.gov.my/index.php/pages/view/82
Drastini, Y. and Widiasihl, D.A. (2009) Studies on Schiff method for the detection formaldehyde in marine milk fish (Chanos-chanos). Journal of Sains Veterinary, 27, 21–27.
EFSA (2005). Opinion on the scientific panel on contaminants in the food chain on a request from the European Parliament related to the safety assessment of wild and farmed fish. EFSA J, 236, 1-118.
Endinkeau, K. and Tan, K.K. (1993) Profile of Fatty Acid Contents in Malaysian Freshwater Fish, Pertanika J. Trop. Agric. Sci. 16(3): 215-221.
Fallah, A. A., Saei-Dehkordi, S. S., Nematollahi, A., & Jafari, T. (2011). Comparative study of heavy metal and trace element accumulation in edible tissues of farmed and wild rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) using ICP-OES technique. Microchemical Journal, 98(2), 275-279.
FAO (2011). Food Supply - Crops Primary Equivalent. Available at http://faostat3.fao.org/download/FB/CC/E
FAO (2016). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016. Contributing to food security and nutrition for all. Rome. 200 pp
FAO (2017b). Strengthening capacities, policies and national action plans on prudent and responsible use of antimicrobials in fisheries: Workshop 2 in cooperation with Malaysia Department of Fisheries and INFOFISH (FAO Project FMM/RAS/298). Available at: http://www.fao.org/fi/staticmedia/MeetingDocuments/Workshop2AMR/presentations/26.pdf
FAO and WHO (2012). Code of Practice for fish and fishery products: Second edition. ISBN 978-92-5- 107018-5
Farmer, L. J., McConnell, J. M., & Kilpatrick, D. J. (2000). Sensory characteristics of farmed and wild Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture, 187(1), 105-125.
FDA (2016) Constituent Update: FDA Issues Import Alert on Imported Shrimp and Prawns from Peninsular Malaysia. Available at https://www.fda.gov/Food/NewsEvents/ConstituentUpdates/ucm496475.htm
Flos, R., Reig, L., Oca, J., & Ginovart, M. (2002). Influence of marketing and different land-based systems on gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) quality. Aquaculture International, 10(3), 189-206.
Font-i-Furnols, M., & Guerrero, L. (2014). Consumer preference, behavior and perception about meat and meat products: An overview. Meat science, 98(3), 361-371.
Foran, J. A., Hites, R. A., Carpenter, D. O., Hamilton, M. C., Mathews-Amos, A., & Schwager, S. J. (2004). A survey of metals in tissues of farmed Atlantic and wild Pacific salmon. Environmental toxicology and chemistry, 23(9), 2108-2110.
From, J., & Hørlyck, V. (1984). Sites of uptake of geosmin, a cause of earthy-flavor, in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 41(8), 1224-1226.
Fuentes, A., Fernández-Segovia, I., Serra, J. A., & Barat, J. M. (2010). Comparison of wild and cultured sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) quality. Food Chemistry, 119(4), 1514-1518.
Garcia-Alvarez, L., Dawson, S., Cookson, B. and Hawkey, P. (2012). Working across the veterinary and human health sectors. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 67: 37-49.
Goh, E.V., Azam-Ali, S., & McCullough, F. (2023). Fish Purchasing Behavior and Implications for Promoting Sustainable Consumption: A Malaysian Case. The Asian Journal of Business Environment (AJBE), 13(2), 29-37.
Goh, E.V., Azam-Ali, S., Mitra, S. R., & McCullough, F. (2021). Understanding the patterns of fish and seafood consumption and its nutritional roles among a Malaysian population to inform sustainable development. Asia Pacific Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, Food and Energy, 9(1), 1-13.
González, S., Flick, G. J., O’keefe, S. F., Duncan, S. E., McLean, E., & Craig, S. R. (2006). Composition of farmed and wild yellow perch (Perca flavescens). Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 19(6), 720-726.
Gram, L., & Dalgaard, P. (2002). Fish spoilage bacteria–problems and solutions. Current opinion in biotechnology, 13(3), 262-266.
Grigorakis K., (2007). Compositional and organoleptic quality of farmed and wild gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and factors affecting it: A review. Aquaculture 272, 55-75.
Grigorakis, K. (1999). Quality of cultured and wild gilt-head sea bream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) (Doctoral dissertation, University of Lincolnshire and Humberside).
Gutierrez, R., Whangchai, N., Sompong, U., Prarom, W., Iwami, N., Itayama, T., ... & Sugiura, N. (2013). Off-flavour in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) cultured in an integrated pond-cage culture system. Maejo International Journal of Science and Technology, 7, 1.
Haard, N.F. (1992). Control of chemical composition and food quality attributes of cultured fish. Food Research International, Vol. 25, pp. 289–307.
Hall, T.E. and Amberg, S.M. (2013). Factors influencing consumption of farmed seafood products in the Pacific northwest. Appetite, 2013 Jul; 66:1-9.
Hamilton, M. C., Hites, R. A., Schwager, S. J., Foran, J. A., Knuth, B. A., & Carpenter, D. O. (2005). Lipid composition and contaminants in farmed and wild salmon. Environmental science & technology, 39(22), 8622-8629.
Hardy, R. W. (2003). Farmed fish and omega-3 fatty acids. Aquaculture Magazine, 29(2), 63-65.
Hathurusingha, P. I., & Davey, K. R. (2016). Chemical taste taint accumulation in RAS farmed fish–A Fr 13 risk assessment demonstrated with geosmin (GSM) and 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) in barramundi (Lates calcarifer). Food Control, 60, 309-319.
Henriques, J., Dick, J. R., Tocher, D. R., & Bell, J. G. (2014). Nutritional quality of salmon products available from major retailers in the UK: content and composition of n-3 long-chain PUFA. British Journal of Nutrition, 112(6), 964-975.
Hites, R. A., Foran, J. A., Carpenter, D. O., Hamilton, M. C., Knuth, B. A., & Schwager, S. J. (2004). Global assessment of organic contaminants in farmed salmon. Science, 303(5655), 226-229.
Hoque, M. S., Jacxsens, L., De Meulenaer, B., & Alam, A. N. (2016). Quantitative risk assessment for formalin treatment in fish preservation: food safety concern in local market of Bangladesh. Procedia Food Science, 6, 151-158.
Hossain, M. A. (2011). Fish as source of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which one is betterfarmed or wild?. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology, 3(6), 455-466.
Hossain, M. A., and Wahab, M. A. (2011). The Diversity of Cypriniforms Throughout Bangladesh. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated.
Hunter, B. J., Allan, G. L., & Roberts, D. C. (2001). Lipid composition of farmed versus wild silver perch Bidyanus bidyanus: theoretical impact on a human diet. Australian Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics, 58(1), 45-51.
Hurlburt, B.K., Brashear, S.S., Lloyd, S.W., Grimm, C.C., Thomson, J.L. and Zimba, P.V. 2009. Impact of weather on off-flavour episodes at a Louisiana commercial catfish farm. Aquaculture Research, 40(5): 566-574.
Igarashi, T., Aursand, M., Sacchi, R., Paolillo, L., Nonaka, M. and Wada, S. (2002) Determination of docosahexaenoic acid and n-3 fatty acids in refined fish oils by 1 H-NMR spectroscopy: IUPAC interlaboratory study. J. AOAC Int., 85: 1341-1354.
Izquierdo, M. S., Montero, D., Robaina, L., Caballero, M. J., Rosenlund, G., & Ginés, R. (2005). Alterations in fillet fatty acid profile and flesh quality in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) fed vegetable oils for a long term period. Recovery of fatty acid profiles by fish oil feeding. Aquaculture, 250(1), 431-444.
Jamilah, B., A. Nurul, S. Yusoff and B.H.A. Faujan. 2001. Identification of aroma, earthy flavor and after taste in Tilapia using sensory evaluation technique. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science 24(2): 95-100.
Järup, L. (2003). Hazards of heavy metal contamination. British medical bulletin, 68(1), 167-182.
Jensen, G. L., & Greenlees, K. J. (1997). Public health issues in aquaculture. Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of Epizootics), 16(2), 641-651.
Johnsen, P. B., Civille, G. V., & Vercelloti, J. R. (1987). A lexicon of pond-raised catfish flavor descriptors. Journal of Sensory Studies, 2(2), 85-91. Johnston, R. J., Wessells, C. R., Donath, H., and Asche, F. (
Jones, B., Fuller, S., & Carton, A. G. (2013). Earthy-muddy tainting of cultured barramundi linked to geosmin in tropical northern Australia. Aquaculture Environment Interactions, 3(2), 117-124.
Josephson, D. B., & Lindsay, R. C. (1986). Enzymic generation of volatile aroma compounds from fresh fish.
Kalantzi, I., Black, K. D., Pergantis, S. A., Shimmield, T. M., Papageorgiou, N., Sevastou, K., & Karakassis, I. (2013). Metals and other elements in tissues of wild fish from fish farms and comparison with farmed species in sites with oxic and anoxic sediments. Food chemistry, 141(2), 680- 694.
Kalidoss Manikandan, N. F., & Prabu, E. (2020). A review on the application and effect of carotenoids with respect to canthaxanthin in the culture of fishes and crustaceans. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 8(5), 128-133.
Karapanagiotidis, I. T., Bell, M. V., Little, D. C., Yakupitiyage, A., & Rakshit, S. K. (2006). Polyunsaturated fatty acid content of wild and farmed tilapias in Thailand: effect of aquaculture practices and implications for human nutrition. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54(12), 4304-4310.
Katrin Schlag, A., & Ystgaard, K. (2013). Europeans and aquaculture: perceived differences between wild and farmed fish. British Food Journal, 115(2), 209-222.
Leong, Y.H., Chiang, P.N., Jaafar, H.J., Gan, C.Y., and Majid, M.I.A. (2014). Contamination of food samples from Malaysia with polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans and estimation of human intake. Food Addit Contam. 2014;31:711–718. doi: 10.1080/19440049.2014.880519.
Lövkvist, S. (2014). An investigation of the lipid content and lipid composition in Atlantic salmon, pink salmon and striped catfish, obtained at the local retailers in Uppsala, Sweden.
Martinsen, C., Lauby, B. B., Nevissi, A., & Brannon, E. (1992). The influence of crude oil and dispersant on the sensory characteristics of steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in marine waters. Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology, 1(1), 37-52.
Ministry of Health Singapore (2011). Singapore Food Composition Database: Energy and Nutrient Composition of Food. Available from: focos.hpb.gov.sg/eservices/ENCF/
Montero, D., Robaina, L., Caballero, M. J., Ginés, R., & Izquierdo, M. S. (2005). Growth, feed utilization and flesh quality of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) fed diets containing vegetable oils: a time-course study on the effect of a re-feeding period with a 100% fish oil diet. Aquaculture, 248(1), 121-134.
Muhamad, N.A. and Mohamad, J. (2012) Fatty Acids Composition of Selected Malaysian Fishes (Komposisi Asid Lemak Ikan Terpilih Malaysia). Sains Malaysiana 41(1)(2012): 81–94
Murray, J. and Burt, J.R. (2001). The Composition of Fish. Torry Advisory Note No. 38, Ministry of Technology. Torry Research Station, U.K., 14 pp.
NCFFN (2005). National Coordinating Committee on Food and Nutrition: Recommended Nutrient Intakes for Malaysia. Ministry of Health Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Nettleton, J. A., & Exler, J. (1992). Nutrients in wild and farmed fish and shellfish. Journal of Food Science, 57(2), 257-260.
Noordiana, N., Fatimah, A. B. and Farhana, Y. C. B. (2011). Formaldehyde content and quality characteristics of selected fish and seafood from wet markets. International Food Research Journal 18(1): 125-136.
Nøstbakken, O. J., Hove, H. T., Duinker, A., Lundebye, A. K., Berntssen, M. H., Hannisdal, R., ... & Julshamn, K. (2015). Contaminant levels in Norwegian farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in the 13- year period from 1999 to 2011. Environment international, 74, 274-280.
Nurul Izzah, A., F.B.H. Ahmad, B. Jamilah and Y. Salmah. 2004. Geosmin and isoborneol in black tilapia (Oreochromis mossambica). Ultra Science 16(2): 151-154.
Nurul Izzah, A., F.B.H. Ahmad, B. Jamilah and Y. Salmah. 2000. Volatile flavor and off-flavour components in black tilapia (O-mossambica) cultured in ex-tin mines. Research Journal of Chemistry and Environment 4(3): 67-72.
Nurul, N., Azrina, A., Muhammad, R. R., Nor, A. R., & Latiff, A. A. (2012). PCDDs and PCDFs in pelagic fish along the Straits of Malacca. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science, 35(4), 779-794.
Olsson, G. B., Olsen, R. L., Carlehög, M., & Ofstad, R. (2003). Seasonal variations in chemical and sensory characteristics of farmed and wild Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). Aquaculture, 217(1), 191-205.
Orban, E., Sinesio, F., & Paoletti, F. (1997). The functional properties of the proteins, texture and the sensory characteristics of frozen sea bream fillets (Sparus aurata) from different farming systems. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 30(2), 214-217.
Osman, H., Suriah, A.R. and Law, E.C. (2001). Fatty acid composition and cholesterol content of selected marine fish in Malaysian waters. Food Chemistry 73: 55-60.
Padula, D. J., Daughtry, B. J., & Nowak, B. F. (2008). Dioxins, PCBs, metals, metalloids, pesticides and antimicrobial residues in wild and farmed Australian southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii). Chemosphere, 72(1), 34-44.
Percival, S., Drabsch, P., & Glencross, B. (2008). Determining factors affecting muddy-flavour taint in farmed barramundi, Lates calcarifer. Aquaculture, 284(1), 136-143.
Pimolrat, P., Whangchai, N., Chitmanat, C., Itayama, T., & Lebel, L. (2015). Off-flavor Characterization in high nutrient load Tilapia ponds in northern Thailand.
Rasmussen, R. S. (2001). Quality of farmed salmonids with emphasis on proximate composition, yield and sensory characteristics. Aquaculture Research, 32(10), 767-786.
Robertson, R. F., Hammond, A., Jauncey, K., Beveridge, M. C. M., & Lawton, L. A. (2006). An investigation into the occurrence of geosmin responsible for earthy–musty taints in UK farmed rainbow trout, Onchorhynchus mykiss. Aquaculture, 259(1), 153-163.
Robin, J., Cravedi, J. P., Hillenweck, A., Deshayes, C., & Vallod, D. (2006). Off flavor characterization and origin in French trout farming. Aquaculture, 260(1), 128-138.
Ruiz-Lopez, N., Sayanova, O., Napier, J.A., and Haslam, R.P. (2012). Metabolic engineering of the omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthetic pathway into transgenic plants. J Exp Bot. 2012;63:2397–2410. doi: 10.1093/jxb/err454.
Rusli, M. H. B. M. (2012). Protecting vital sea lines of communication: A study of the proposed designation of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore as a particularly sensitive sea area. Ocean & Coastal Management, 57, 79-94.
Sapkota, A., Sapkota, A. R., Kucharski, M., Burke, J., McKenzie, S., Walker, P., & Lawrence, R. (2008). Aquaculture practices and potential human health risks: current knowledge and future priorities. Environment international, 34(8), 1215-1226.
Schlag, A.K. and Ystgaard, K. (2013). Europeans and aquaculture: perceived differences between wild and farmed fish. British Food Journal, Vol. 115 Iss: 2, pp.209 – 222.
Sérot, T., Gandemer, G., & Demaimay, M. (1998). Lipid and fatty acid compositions of muscle from farmed and wild adult turbot. Aquaculture International, 6(5), 331-343.
Serrano, P. H. (2005). Responsible use of antibiotics in aquaculture (No. 469). Food & Agriculture Org.
Siti Aminah, A., Zailina. H., Fatimah, A.B. (2013). Health risk Assessment of adults consuming commercial fish contaminated with formaldehyde. Food and Public Health, 3(1), 52-58.
Smith, J. L., Boyer, G. L., & Zimba, P. V. (2008). A review of cyanobacterial odorous and bioactive metabolites: impacts and management alternatives in aquaculture. Aquaculture, 280(1), 5-20.
Sprague, M., Dick, J. R., & Tocher, D. R. (2016). Impact of sustainable feeds on omega-3 long-chain fatty acid levels in farmed Atlantic salmon, 2006–2015. Scientific reports, 6, 21892.
Streit, B. (1998). Bioaccumulation of contaminants in fish. In Fish Ecotoxicology (pp. 353-387). Birkhäuser Basel.
Strobel, C., Jahreis, G., & Kuhnt, K. (2012). Survey of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish and fish products. Lipids in health and disease, 11(1), 144.
Suyama, M., Hirano, T., Yamazake S. (1985). Quality of wild and cultured ayu. VI. Odor of ayu and its volatile components. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries, 51(2), 287-294.
Tan, S.C., Ong, K.J., and Raman, A. (2012, March 24). CAP: Formalin may have been used to preserve fish. The Star Newspaper. Retrieved from: http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2012/03/24/cap-formalin-may-have-been-used-topreserve-fish/#AdWBdLIKoiIq73gj.99
Tang, X., Bai, Y., Duong, A., Smith, M.T., Li, L. and Zhang, L. (2009) Formaldehyde in China: production, consumption, exposure levels, and health effects. Environment international, 35, 1210−124.
Tocher, D. R. (2010). Fatty acid requirements in ontogeny of marine and freshwater fish. Aquaculture Research, 41(5), 717-732.
Tunhun, D., Kanont, S., Chaiyawat, M., and Raksakulthai, N. (1996). Detection of illegal addition of formaldehyde to fresh fish. ASEAN Food J. 11 : 74-77.
USDA (2015). United States Department of Agriculture and Department of Health and Human Services: Scientific Report of the 2015 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee. Available at: http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015-scientific-report/pdfs/scientific-report-of-the-2015- dietary-guidelines-advisory-committee.pdf
Usydus, Z., Szlinder-Richert, J., Adamczyk, M., & Szatkowska, U. (2011). Marine and farmed fish in the Polish market: Comparison of the nutritional value. Food Chemistry, 126(1), 78-84.
Vanhonacker, F., Altintzoglou, T., Luten, J., and Verbeke, W. (2011). Does fish origin matter to European consumers?: Insights from a consumer survey in Belgium, Norway and Spain. British Food Journal, Vol. 113 Iss: 4, pp.535 – 549.
Vanhonacker, F., Van Loo, E. J., Gellynck, X., and Verbeke, W. (2013). Flemish consumer attitudes towards more sustainable food choices. Appetite, 62, 7–16. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.11.003
Venugopal, V. (Ed.). (2005). Seafood processing: adding value through quick freezing, retortable packaging and cook-chilling. CRC press.
Verbeke, W. and Vackier, I. (2005). Individual determinants of fish consumption: application of the theory of planned behaviour, Appetite, Vol. 44, pp. 67–82.
Verbeke, W., Sioen, I., Pieniak, Z., Van Camp, J., and De Henauw, S. (2005). Consumer perception versus scientific evidence about health benefits and safety risks from fish consumption. Public Health Nutr. 2005;8:422-429
Verbeke, W., Vanhonacker, F., Sioen, I., Camp, J.V. and De Henauw, S. (2007). Perceived importance of sustainability and ethics related to fish: a consumer behavior perspective. Ambio, Vol. 36(7) , 580– 585.
Wegener, H. C. (2012). Antibiotic resistance—linking human and animal health. In Improving food safety through a one health approach: workshop summary (p. 331). National Academies Press.
WHO (2006). Toxicological evaluation of certain veterinary drug residues in food (Vol. 57). World Health Organization.
WHO (2008) Interim Summary of Conclusions and Dietary Recommendations on Total Fat and Fatty Acids From the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation on Fats and Fatty Acids in Human Nutrition. Geneva: 2008 Nov 10-14
Wooster, G. A., Martinez, C. M., Bowser, P. R., & O'Hara, D. S. (2005). Human health risks associated with formalin treatments used in aquaculture: initial study. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 67(2), 111-113.
Yildiz, M. (2008). Mineral composition in fillets of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus aurata): a comparison of cultured and wild fish. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 24(5), 589- 594.
Yipel, M., Erdinç, T. Ü. R. K., Tekeli, I. O., & Halis, O. Ğ. U. Z. (2016). Heavy Metal Levels in Farmed and Wild Fishes of Aegean Sea and Assessment of Potential Risks to Human Health. Kafkas Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(6), 889-894.
Zimba, P.V. and Grimm, C.C. 2003. A synoptic survey of musty/muddy odor metabolites and microcystin toxin occurrence and concentration in southeastern USA channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus Ralfinesque) production ponds. Aquaculture, 218(1-4): 81-87.
Copyright (c) 2023 Ee Von Goh, Susan Azam-Ali, Soma Roy Mitra, Fiona McCullough
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
